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Section 41
Aggressive Behavior

Question 41 | Test | Table of Contents

In the last section, we discussed three approaches to moving beyond stereotypes in multicultural counseling. These three approaches were, 1. Intercultural versus Intracultural Differences, 2. Transculturalism, and 3. the Tridimensional Approach.

In this section, we will discuss a typology of multicultural counseling. As you may know, a typology of approaches to multicultural counseling can begin to give an answer to the question of the relative importance of cultural differences with your client. With that in mind, Carter offers a classification system of "Four Common Approaches to Multi-Cultural Training". These four common approaches are the Universal Approach, the Ubiquitous Approach, the Traditional Approach, and the Race-Based Approach.

At the end of this section, we will consider a case study and determine the approach being used, but first let’s look at each of these approaches more closely. As we examine the similarities and differences between these four approaches, think of your supervisee’s therapy approach related to each. What are the ethical implications of your supervisee’s approach on his or her counseling strategies? What ethical implications might other approaches have?

Four Common Approaches to Multi-Cultural Training

#1 Universal Approach
Regarding the first approach, which is the Universal Approach, a strong emphasis is placed on transcending culture. Instead of putting focus on the differences between cultures, the Universal Approach puts focus on the similarities among human beings. I have found that counselors who adopt the Universal approach do not deny cultural differences, but instead see them as secondary to the similarities among human beings. Is this the approach your supervisee takes to multi-cultural training? What effect might this approach have on your supervisee’s culturally different client’s counseling experience?

#2 Ubiquitous Approach
The second approach to multi-cultural training is the Ubiquitous Approach. Therapists using the Ubiquitous Approach generally celebrate cultural differences and recognize those cultural differences as multiple and situationally determined. However, unlike the Universal Approach, the Ubiquitous Approach does not view cultural differences as secondary to the similarities of human beings.

Supervisees adopting the Ubiquitous Approach see the cultural differences as equal to the similarities of human beings. In addition, I have found that a supervisee adopting the Ubiquitous Approach usually holds the belief that an encounter between any two people is a cross-cultural encounter because any two people can bring together a difference in cultural background.

#3 Traditional Approach
In addition to the Universal Approach and the Ubiquitous Approaches to therapy, the third approach to multi-cultural training is the Traditional Approach. The Traditional Approach emphasizes that culture is understood as a common experience in the functions of socialization and environment.

Supervisees adopting the Traditional approach will usually access knowledge of the client’s culture in order to establish the basis of empathy. However, while the Traditional Approach does weigh the differences between the two cultures, it does not consider the dynamics of dominant versus non-dominant cultures. Does this sound like your supervisee’s personal belief and approach to multi-cultural training? If so, how is dominant versus nondominant culture influencing your supervisee’s counseling relationship with his or her culturally different client?

#4 Race-Based Approach
The fourth approach to multi-cultural training is the Race-Based Approach. Supervisees that operate under the belief that race superimposes itself upon all other cultural variables at all times are usually seen as using the Race-Based Approach. I have found that the Race-Based Approach is the only approach that takes into serious consideration the difference-of-power dynamics among cultural groupings.

As you know, race is one variable that is neither fluid nor flexible. If you are not familiar with the Race-Based Approach, you may liken it to a gender-based approach. A Race-Based Approach is similar to a gender-based approach because both recognize a superimposed variable determined by physical characteristics upon which ideas and assumptions about one’s place in society are applied. Obviously, the difference is that in a Race-Based Approach, the variable is race of the client, whereas in a gender-based approach, the variable is gender of the client. Make sense?

Now let’s look at a brief case. As I describe the case, see if you can determine the approach to multi-cultural training that the supervisee in the case uses.

Roshaun (row’-shawn), a 15-year-old African American, was referred to his school’s counselor, William, for "abusive language" and "aggressive behavior." His teacher, Mr. Smith, noted specifically that Roshaun had shoved another student in the classroom. William began sessions with Roshaun, expecting to find roots for his aggression in a chaotic home life. After learning a bit about the African-American neighborhood Roshaun grew up in and his home life, William realized that the abusive language the teacher had referred to was simply the street slang Roshaun was comfortable using in conversation.

As for the aggressive behavior and shoving, Roshaun stated, "That was just my friend, Jevonte (jev-on’-tay). We were just giving’ each other a hard time. I got all up in his grill, but I wasn’t really gonna hurt him. I tried to explain it, but Mr. Smith wasn’t listenin’. He just told me to ‘stop the abusive language,’ but I wasn’t threatening’ nobody! Then he said that us hoods were all the same, and that he couldn’t deal with me." By the end of the session, William decided that Roshaun’s behavior was simply culturally appropriate.

What approach do you think Roshaun’s school counselor, William, was using? As you can see, William was taking a ubiquitous approach. The most obvious clue he is using the ubiquitous approach in this case study was William’s willingness to consider the culture of Roshaun’s neighborhood. As stated earlier, therapists using the ubiquitous approach view cultural differences as situationally determined. As such, Roshaun’s neighborhood and experiences growing up there could be the situationally determined cause for the current cultural differences. Make sense?

Which approach does your supervisee take regarding multi-cultural training?

Does your supervisee focus on the similarities of all human beings, like the therapists who work with the Universal Approach? Or maybe they approach multi-cultural training with the belief that cultural differences are equal to human similarities, like the Ubiquitous therapist? Or do they instead counsel culturally different clients based on the belief that race superimposes itself upon all other cultural variables like the Race-Based Approach therapists? What are the ethical implications of each of these belief systems on a counseling relationship with a culturally different client?

In this section, we have discussed the "Four Common Approaches to Multi-Cultural Training". These four common approaches were the Universal Approach, the Ubiquitous Approach, the Traditional Approach, and the Race-Based Approach.

In the next section, we will discuss "Five Cultural Adaptation Methods". These Five Cultural Adaptation Methods are Assimilation, Integration, Alternation, Rejection, and Marginalization.
Reviewed 2023

Peer-Reviewed Journal Article References:
Malti, T., McDonald, K., Rubin, K. H., Rose-Krasnor, L., & Booth-LaForce, C. (2015). Developmental trajectories of peer-reported aggressive behavior: The role of friendship understanding, friendship quality, and friends’ aggressive behavior. Psychology of Violence, 5(4), 402–410.

Schatten, H. T., Gaudiano, B. A., Primack, J. M., Arias, S. A., Armey, M. F., Miller, I. W., Epstein-Lubow, G., & Weinstock, L. M. (2020). Monitoring, assessing, and responding to suicide risk in clinical research. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 129(1), 64–69.

“The association between emotion, social information processing, and aggressive behavior: A systematic review”: Correction to Smeijers, Benbouriche, and Garofalo (2020) (2020). European Psychologist, 25(2), 155.

Thompson, S. M. (2020). Responding to inappropriate client sexual behaviors: Perspectives on effective supervision. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 30(1), 122–129.

Watkins, C. E., Jr. (2018). The generic model of psychotherapy supervision: An analogized research-informing meta-theory. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 28(4), 521–536.

QUESTION 41
What are the four common approaches to multi-cultural training? To select and enter your answer go to Test.


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