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Ethical and Cultural Issues Arising from the Psychology of Terrorism

Section 8
Code of Ethics

Question 8 | Test | Table of Contents

American Psychological Association
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
(excerpt)

1.02 Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority.
If psychologists’ ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations or other governing legal authority, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights.

2.06 Personal Problems and Conflicts
(a) Psychologists refrain from initiating an activity when they know or should know that there is a substantial likelihood that their personal problems will prevent them from performing their work-related activities in a competent manner.

(b) When psychologists become aware of personal problems that may interfere with their performing work-related duties adequately, they take appropriate measures, such as obtaining professional consultation or assistance and determine whether they should limit, suspend or terminate their work-related duties. (See also Standard 10.10, Terminating Therapy.)

3.01 Unfair Discrimination.
In their work-related activities, psychologists do not engage in unfair discrimination based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, socioeconomic status or any basis proscribed by law.

3.03 Other Harassment.
Psychologists do not knowingly engage in behavior that is harassing or demeaning to persons with whom they interact in their work based on factors such as those persons' age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language or socioeconomic status.

4.01 Maintaining Confidentiality.
Psychologists have a primary obligation and take reasonable precautions to protect confidential information obtained through or stored in any medium, recognizing that the extent and limits of confidentiality may be regulated by law or established by institutional rules or professional or scientific relationship. (See also Standard 2.05, Delegation of Work to Others.)

4.05 Disclosures.
(a) Psychologists may disclose confidential information with the appropriate consent of the organizational client, the individual client/patient or another legally authorized person on behalf of the client/patient unless prohibited by law.

(b) Psychologists disclose confidential information without the consent of the individual only as mandated by law, or where permitted by law for a valid purpose such as to (1) provide needed professional services; (2) obtain appropriate professional consultations; (3) protect the client/patient, psychologist, or others from harm; or (4) obtain payment for services from a client/patient, in which instance disclosure is limited to the minimum that is necessary to achieve the purpose. (See also Standard 6.04e, Fees and Financial Arrangements.)
- American Psychological Association (APA). (2017, January 1). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code

Psychologist, do you know how your professional Code of Ethics
differs from your Staffs’ Professional Code of Ethics?


National Association of Social Workers
Code of Ethics Excerpt
1.01 Commitment to Clients
Social workers’ primary responsibility is to promote the well-being of clients. In general, clients’ interests are primary. However, social workers’ responsibility to the larger society or specific legal obligations may on limited occasions supersede the loyalty owed clients, and clients should be so advised. (Examples include when a social worker is required by law to report that a client has abused a child or has threatened to harm self or others.)

1.02 Self-Determination
Social workers respect and promote the right of clients to self-determination and assist clients in their efforts to identify and clarify their goals. Social workers may limit clients’ right to self-determination when, in the social workers’ professional judgment, clients’ actions or potential actions pose a serious, foreseeable, and imminent risk to themselves or others.

1.05 Cultural Awareness and Social Diversity
(a) Social workers should understand culture and its function in human behavior and society, recognizing the strengths that exist in all cultures.
(b) Social workers should have a knowledge base of their clients’ cultures and be able to demonstrate competence in the provision of services that are sensitive to clients’ cultures and to differences among people and cultural groups.
(c) Social workers should obtain education about and seek to understand the nature of social diversity and oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief, religion, and mental or physical disability.
(d) Social workers who provide electronic social work services should be aware of cultural and socioeconomic differences among clients and how they may use electronic technology. Social workers should assess cultural, environmental, economic, mental or physical ability, linguistic, and other issues that may affect the delivery or use of these services.

1.06 Conflicts of Interest
(b) Social workers should not take unfair advantage of any professional relationship or exploit others to further their personal, religious, political, or business interests.

1.07 Privacy and Confidentiality
(a) Social workers should respect clients’ right to privacy. Social workers should not solicit private information from clients unless it is essential to providing services or conducting social work evaluation or research. Once private information is shared, standards of confidentiality apply.
(c) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of all information obtained in the course of professional service, except for compelling professional reasons. The general expectation that social workers will keep information confidential does not apply when disclosure is necessary to prevent serious, foreseeable, and imminent harm to a client or other identifiable person. In all instances, social workers should disclose the least amount of confidential information necessary to achieve the desired purpose; only information that is directly relevant to the purpose for which the disclosure is made should be revealed.
(e) Social workers should discuss with clients and other interested parties the nature of confidentiality and limitations of clients’ right to confidentiality. Social workers should review with clients circumstances where confidential information may be requested and where disclosure of confidential information may be legally required. This discussion should occur as soon as possible in the social worker-client relationship and as needed throughout the course of the relationship.
(k) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of clients when responding to requests from members of the media.

2.05 Consultation
(a) Social workers should seek the advice and counsel of colleagues whenever such consultation is in the best interests of clients.
(b) Social workers should keep themselves informed about colleagues’ areas of expertise and competencies. Social workers should seek consultation only from colleagues who have demonstrated knowledge, expertise, and competence related to the subject of the consultation.
(c) When consulting with colleagues about clients, social workers should disclose the least amount of information necessary to achieve the purposes of the consultation.

4.02 Discrimination
Social workers should not practice, condone, facilitate, or collaborate with any form of discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief, religion, or mental or physical disability.
- National Association of Social Workers. (2017). NASW Code of Ethics. Retrieved from https://www.socialworkers.org/About/Ethics/Code-of-Ethics/Code-of-Ethics-English

American Association of Marriage and Family Therapists
Code of Ethics
(excerpt)

1. Responsibility to Clients
1.1 Marriage and family therapists provide professional assistance to persons without discrimination on the basis of race, age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disability, gender, health status, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, gender identity or relationship status.
1.6 Marriage and family therapists comply with applicable laws regarding the reporting of alleged unethical conduct.
1.7 Marriage and family therapists do not abuse their power in therapeutic relationships.

2. Confidentiality
2.1 Marriage and family therapists disclose to clients and other interested parties at the outset of services the nature of confidentiality and possible limitations of the clients’ right to confidentiality. Therapists review with clients the circumstances where confidential information may be requested and where disclosure of confidential information may be legally required. Circumstances may necessitate repeated disclosures.
2.2 Marriage and family therapists do not disclose client confidences except by written authorization or waiver, or where mandated or permitted by law. Verbal authorization will not be sufficient except in emergency situations, unless prohibited by law. When providing couple, family or group treatment, the therapist does not disclose information outside the treatment context without a written authorization from each individual competent to execute a waiver. In the context of couple, family or group treatment, the therapist may not reveal any individual’s confidences to others in the client unit without the prior written permission of that individual.

3. Professional Competence and Integrity
3.10 Marriage and family therapists do not diagnose, treat, or advise on problems outside the recognized boundaries of their competencies.
3.11 Marriage and family therapists, because of their ability to influence and alter the lives of others, exercise special care when making public their professional recommendations and opinions through testimony or other public statements.
- American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy. (2015, January 1). Code of Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.aamft.org/iMIS15/AAMFT/Content/Legal_Ethics/Code_of_Ethics.aspx


National Board for Certified Counselors Code of Ethics

Preamble
The National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) administers national certifications that recognize individuals who have voluntarily met standards for general and specialty areas of professional counseling practice. Counselors certified by NBCC may also identify with different professional organizations, and are often licensed by jurisdictions that promulgate standards of behavior. Regardless of any other affiliation, this Code of Ethics is applicable to all NBCC certificants, including National Certified Counselors (NCCs). Counselors are required to adhere to these expectations and all of the Code directives. Candidates and certificants will be sanctioned pursuant to this Code by NBCC when the standards in the NBCC Code of Ethics are found to have been violated. This Code applies to all counselors who are certified by NBCC, candidates for certification, and other counselors subject to this Code.

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES
7. Counselors shall demonstrate multicultural counseling competence in practice. Counselors will not use counseling techniques or engage in any professional activities that discriminate against or show hostility toward individuals or groups based on gender, ethnicity, race, national origin, sex, sexual orientation, disability, religion, or any other legally prohibited basis.

10. Counselors, who have reasonable cause to believe that another mental health professional has engaged in unethical behavior, must report the matter to NBCC except when State regulations require immediate reporting.

11. Counselors shall discuss service termination with clients when there is a reasonable belief that the clients are no longer benefiting from, or are unlikely to benefit from, future services. Counselors shall not abruptly terminate counseling services without good cause or significant justification, and in such cases, shall discuss and provide appropriate referrals.

13. Counselors shall adhere to legal standards and requirements, including State licensure regulations.

14. Counselors shall not engage in unlawful discrimination.

15. Counselors, who make public statements inconsistent with this Code or other professional counseling standards, shall state that their opinions represent their personal views. Counselors shall not make statements on behalf of NBCC or other organizations unless officially authorized to do otherwise.

16. Counselors providing professional counseling presentations shall ensure that the content is consistent with this Code of Ethics.

TESTING, APPRAISAL, AND RESEARCH
Research
71. Counselors conducting research with underrepresented groups must take into consideration their historical, diverse, and multicultural experiences, and only use techniques and approaches based on established, clinically sound theory applicable to underrepresented populations.

COUNSELOR EDUCATION
Gatekeeping

88. Counselor educators shall serve as professional gatekeepers and assume responsibilities related to the evaluation of their students’ professional behaviors and dispositions. Counselor educators shall establish clear, written behavioral and dispositional expectations for students, as well as policies regarding student remediation. Counselor educators engage in gatekeeping practices that account for the developmental nature of counselor training, as well as cultural differences among students.

Advocacy
89. Counselor educators shall advocate for counseling students to address programmatic barriers and obstacles that hinder student academic growth and development.

Cultural Identity
90. Counselor educators will practice cultural responsiveness in their teaching, and respect the cultural identity, values, sexual orientation, and gender identity, of their students.
-National Board for Certified Counselors, Inc. (2023, May). NBCC Code of Ethics. Retrieved from https://nbcc.org/assets/Ethics/NBCCCodeofEthics.pdf?_zs=KjseE1&_zl=Jlq77

American Counseling Association Code of Ethics Excerpt

Section C: Professional Responsibility
C.5. Nondiscrimination
Counselors do not condone or engage in discrimination against prospective or current clients, students, employees, supervisees, or research participants based on age, culture, disability, ethnicity, race, religion/spirituality, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, marital/partnership status, language preference, socioeconomic status, immigration status, or any basis proscribed by law.
Section I: Resolving Ethical Issues
I.2.e. Unwarranted Complaints:
Counselors do not initiate, participate in, or encourage the filing of ethics complaints that are retaliatory in nature or are made with reckless disregard or willful ignorance of facts that would disprove the allegation.
I.3. Cooperation With Ethics Committees
Counselors assist in the process of enforcing the ACA Code of Ethics. Counselors cooperate with investigations, proceedings, and requirements of the ACA Ethics Committee or ethics committees of other duly constituted associations or boards having jurisdiction over those charged with a violation.
- American Counseling Association. (2014). ACA Code of Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.counseling.org/docs/ethics/2014-aca-code-of-ethics.pdf?sfvrsn=4


Personal Reflection Exercise Explanation
The Goal of this Home Study Course is to create a learning experience that enhances your clinical skills. We encourage you to discuss the Personal Reflection Journaling Activities, found at the end of each Section, with your colleagues. Thus, you are provided with an opportunity for a Group Discussion experience. Case Study examples might include: family background, socio-economic status, education, occupation, social/emotional issues, legal/financial issues, death/dying/health, home management, parenting, etc. as you deem appropriate. A Case Study is to be approximately 125 words in length. However, since the content of these “Personal Reflection” Journaling Exercises is intended for your future reference, they may contain confidential information and are to be applied as a “work in progress.” You will not be required to provide us with these Journaling Activities.

Personal Reflection Exercise #1
The preceding section contained Codes of Ethics for mental health professionals. Write two case study examples regarding applications of Ethical Principles you feel might be in conflict with national terrorist activities such as the September 11, 2001 attack on the New York World Trade Center. Much fear was generated by these attacks; thus, patient symptoms in many cases were amplified. An anxiety disordered client may have experienced heightened feelings of anxiety and a mood disordered client may have experienced increased depression. These may include Major Depressive Episode, Manic Episode, Mixed Episode, Hypomanic Episode, Major Depressive Disorder, etc. Conflicts with your profession’s code of ethics may arise regarding the therapist’s personal feelings concerning a certain religion or cultural ethnicity related to clients’ viewpoints. Ethical principles of self-determination, cultural competence, conflict of interest, and perhaps personal problems may present some ethical questions in your mind.

NOTE: sentences and phrases are in bold type, in each section of this manual, for the purpose of highlighting key ideas for easy reference.

Reviewed 2023

Update
Ethics of assertive care in mental health: A gradual concept

Liégeois A. (2023). Ethics of assertive care in mental health: A gradual concept. Frontiers in psychiatry, 14, 1083176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1083176


Peer-Reviewed Journal Article References:
Mac Giollabhui, N., Hamilton, J. L., Nielsen, J., Connolly, S. L., Stange, J. P., Varga, S., Burdette, E., Olino, T. M., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2018). Negative cognitive style interacts with negative life events to predict first onset of a major depressive episode in adolescence via hopelessness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127(1), 1–11.

Salman, N. L., & Gill, P. (2020). A survey of risk and threat assessors: Processes, skills, and characteristics in terrorism risk assessment. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 7(1-2), 122–129.

Tschantret, J. (2021). The psychology of right-wing terrorism: A text-based personality analysis. Psychology of Violence, 11(2), 113–122.

QUESTION 8
When a client’s condition indicates that there is a clear and imminent danger to the client or others, the certified counselor must do what? To select and enter your answer go to Test.


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